House Design and Architecture Through the Ages
How old is my home? Why does it look the way it does?
House design and architecture is always evolving. Unravelling the architectural characteristics of a period property to try and obtain some historical context, or to even just guess at the date it was built, can be a daunting task.
Designs and materials have changed over the years to reflect fashions, wealth, available resources, or sometimes even political and religious leanings.
What follows is a brief summary of architectural styles and construction methods from Tudor to Victorian times. The intention is to give an insight into some of the main building techniques, fashions, and materials to show how they developed throughout this period. So, if you’re interested in learning more about how old your home is, why it looks the way it does, or if you’re undertaking a refurbishment project and want to retain some authenticity to a period home, then read on…
1. Tudor Housing – circa 1485 – 1560
Most time lines of architectural history begin with the Tudor Period. This is because all but the grandest of homes built before this period were constructed to such a basic quality that they tended to last no more than a single generation. The materials used prior to the Tudor period comprised predominantly of sticks, straws and mud which have long been lost to the earth.
Henry VII was the first of the English monarchs with the Tudor surname. It was a time of relative peace across Europe which increased commercial trade and helped to improve economic prosperity. This new found affluence was further increased, although mostly only for the landed gentry, when Henry VIII broke from the Roman Catholic Church. He seized the Church’s property and assets through the dissolution of the monasteries and passed the land and buildings to his court favourites.
This new wealth enabled the construction of more permanent family homes including large estates and manor houses. One of the most impressive is Hampton Court, commissioned by Cardinal Wolsey to host the King Henry VIII and his royal court. Henry was so impressed that he eventually took Hampton Court for himself!
The largest of the Tudor structures were generally of brick and stone construction with distinctive long and slender, light-coloured bricks. These lighter bricks were sometimes interspersed with darker burnt bricks in a cross formation which created a ‘diaper’ pattern.
However, it is the characteristic ‘black and white’ timber framed buildings which best exemplifies Tudor Architecture. With narrow street frontages, these properties occasional have timber jetties which overhang the ground floor. The jetties were more a status symbol than an attempt to provide extra floor space! Many of the timber Tudor buildings are still standing today and can be seen in historical market towns such as Faversham, Hitchin and Ledbury.
Little Moreton Hall in Cheshire. Patterned timbers have been used to infill to the main framework – a none too subtle sign of the occupant’s prosperity.
Details to look out for on timber framed Tudor properties include the material that has been used to fill the gaps between the main framework of the building. Most have a ‘wattle and daub’ plaster comprising a mixture of clay, dung, sand and horsehair. This would be smeared (or daubed) onto woven sticks known as wattles. However, some of the more affluent owners would fill most of the gaps between the main framework with more timber; using either close vertical studding or decorative patterned timber pieces. At the time, there was a serious shortage of wood and this exuberant use of timber was therefore another opportunity of providing a clear sign of the occupant’s wealth.
2. Elizabethan and Jacobean Housing – circa 1560 -1660
The Elizabethan period saw continued prosperity and a rising population; factors which caused a massive increase in construction and which is now referred to as the ‘Great Rebuilding’. For the lower classes this probably meant simply introducing a chimney or a glazed window to their property for the first time. However, at the upper end of the class scale, wealthy property owners were revelling in the availability of cheap glass and the possibility of adding more natural light to their homes. One particular property, Hardwick Hall, had so much glass installed that it led to a well-known local saying “Hardwick Hall, more glass than wall.”
Hardwick Hall “More Glass Than Wall”
The use of cheaper glass and chimneys helped to create cleaner and brighter houses. Homeowners could therefore start concerning themselves with the internal fabric, leading to more elaborate furnishing, fixtures and decoration.
Architectural styles in the Elizabethan period were also starting to be influenced by the Renaissance (a ‘rebirth’ of classical art, science and literature originally developed by Greeks and Romans). This movement began in Florence, Italy over 150 years before the Elizabethan period, but in these times styles were relatively slow to spread. This is because the protestant Queen’s legitimacy to the Throne was not accepted by the major European Roman Catholic powers causing Britain to become isolated.
Attempts to replicate renaissance architecture in Britain were therefore, at this early stage, mostly conducted without any real background knowledge of the mathematical proportions which are a key part of classical architecture. Details such as columns and pediments were used but without an understanding of the visual effect between objects and spaces that make up the structure, both to one another and to the whole. It would not be until the Georgian period, when another classically inspired movement known as Palladianism entered the British shores, that a deeper understanding of proportions and symmetry would be adopted.
Aside from the classically inspired architecture of the Elizabethan period there are also a great deal of hidden religious messages that can be found in the buildings of this period. Religious intolerance, particularly against Catholicism, was rife and many royal subjects who failed to renounce their faith could fall foul of this prejudice and face imprisonment.
Queen Elizabeth went so far as to pass a Royal injunction, requiring ‘all signs of superstition and idolatry to be removed from places of worship so there remain no memory of the same’. However, despite this injunction, one way that supposedly loyal courtiers could try to remain on the right side of the law but still celebrate their faith was through covert architectural symbolism.
A building that goes further than any other in symbolising one man’s homage to his faith is the Triangular Lodge in Rushton. Although imprisoned for his faith, Sir Thomas Tresham designed and commissioned the Triangular Lodge from his cell in an attempt to celebrate his faith.
In Catholicism, the Holy Trinity refers to the idea that God is one but can also be experienced in three different Persons. The number three together with the triangle therefore have a deep symbolic meaning in the Catholic faith. From being shaped as a three-sided triangular prism over three floors to its Latin inscriptions which are 33 letters long, Triangular Lodge has been designed to represent the Trinity in every aspect.
Sir Thomas Tresham’s Triangular Lodge in Rushton – A not-so covert Expression of Catholic Faith Through Architecture
Some historians also believe that Queen Elizabeth’s protestant followers added symbolism of their own in order to show an allegiance to the Crown. This supposedly includes the layout of their buildings in the shape of an ‘E’ for Elizabeth. This is, however, contentious and the three shorter lines of the building are likely to have been formed only because the weight of the heavy roofing materials precluded the ability to span large distances and therefore prevented buildings that were more than one room deep.
Wall carvings, known as ‘strapwork’ became fashionable in the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. This ‘strapwork’ comprised interlinked patterned bands, usually seen higher up on parapet walls or pediments. Occasionally it is also possible to see strange looking animals carved into the wall surfaces. These would be inaccurate representations of the exotic animals first encountered and described by sailors involved in the oriental spice trade.
Architectural features that were introduced during the reign of James I (known as the Jacobean period) include Dutch gables. These were gable parapets whose sides have a shape made up of one or more curves and a pediment at the top. Cupolas were also becoming popular and comprised small, mostly dome-like, structures that sit at the apex of roof and were often used to provide a lookout or to admit light and air.
The Jacobean Guildhall in Plymouth displaying prominent cupolas and Dutch gables. Constructed in 1606-1607 for £794 and demolished in 1799.
3. Housing during the Restoration Period – circa 1660 -1714
The Restoration period refers to the reinstatement of the monarchy after Charles II was brought back to the throne after years of exile in France, Holland and Spain, during which the country was governed by Parliament under the direction of the Puritan General Oliver Cromwell.
A particular feature of the Restoration period to look out for is an increase in Dutch styled architecture. This was partly introduced by followers of Charles II during his exile in Holland and includes typically Dutch features such as bright red bricks with contrasting white cornices and raised corner stones known as quoins.
Six years after Charles was restored to the throne, the Great Fire of London occurred, burning the heart out of the capital’s architecture and forcing in new legislation which put controls on the structure and materials of new houses. Gone were the timber framed houses to make way for less combustible stone and brick houses. The new Act stated: “No man whatsoever shall presume to erect any house or building, whether great or small, but of brick or stone.”
At the time of the Great Fire of London, there was no such thing as ‘fire insurance’. Accordingly, small bands of fire brigades began to form; each one with its own individual plaque that customers would display above their doors so that the fire brigade would know which fire to put out. A neighbouring property which caught alight would be left to burn if it did not have a plaque above the door! Occasionally these plaques can still be seen today above the door of houses and are a reminder of the events that led to the modern insurance industry that we know today.
This fire plaque was spotted whilst I surveyed a property in Pury End, Towcester. The markings on the plaque depict Britannia and was adopted by County Insurance Company which has now been absorbed into the Sun Alliance Group.
As the century wore on, French styles began to find their way into British architecture, again probably as a result of the contacts made by Charles II during part of his exile in France. This included a passion for the grandiose, and sometimes over-the-top Baroque styles, typified by Louis XIV at the palace of Versailles. One very famous example of British Baroque architecture is St Paul’s Cathedral by Christopher Wren who was also commissioned to help redesign London after the Great Fire.
St Paul’s Cathedral, a Grade I Listed building designed in the English Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren.
4. Georgian Housing – circa 1714 – 1790
There can be no mistaking the Georgian style of housing. Characterised by symmetry and proportion, it was not simply a slavish reproduction of the classical architecture but instead a faithful representation of the geometric rules developed by the ancient Greeks and Romans. To some, this was a welcome replacement to the extravagant and grandiose Baroque architecture of the earlier Restoration period. The Georgian style was referred to as Palladian architecture, in acknowledgement of the Italian architect Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) who believed that in nature there was a perfect symmetry, the proportions of which could be reflected in a standard set of design rules.
Architectural features to keep a lookout for in a Palladian building include:
- Plain exteriors based on simple rules of proportion
- Highly symmetrical fenestrations (window and door openings)
- Temple frontages with columns and pediments
A typical example of Palladian Architecture of the Georgian period is Chiswick House, located in Hounslow, London. Built between 1727 and 1729, it embodies the rules of symmetry with Palladian ideas of perfect Greek and Roman proportion.
One of the porticos to the house even includes a bust of the Roman Emperor Augustus (the first Roman emperor). The Georgians liked to refer to their era as the Augustan Age, being akin to the illustrious golden age of the Roman empire with prosperity and enlightenment. Other examples of Palladian inspired Georgian architecture include the many terrace houses in Bath. Although the examples shown below are devoid of columns and entablatures, they are unmistakably symmetrical with mathematically proportioned fenestrations.
Classically inspired terrace housing in the Georgian era
There were some architects who did not want to be completed restricted by such rules and, although they followed the general principle of Palladian symmetry they added decorative elements such as ornamental motifs, swags and garlands consisting of stylized flowers, fruit and foliage carved into the stonework.
5. Regency Housing – circa 1790 – 1830
The Regency era spans a period of the early 19th century when George the IV was Prince Regent. Architecturally speaking, it is similar to the Georgian period as many of the buildings adopted the same neoclassical proportions. Look closely though, and you will find many aspects of Regency architecture that set it aside from any other period.
War with France restricted movement abroad and brought an end to the ‘Great Tours’ of Europe which were so much a part of the Georgian era. This led to a new appreciation of the local countryside and nature. Some architects and developers encapsulated this by rejecting the rigid symmetry and constructive proportions familiar with Georgian properties. They harked back to a rustic and more organic form of design and this became known as the ‘Romantic Movement’. It is typified by the ‘chocolate box’ cottage with deep overhanging thatched roofs. Although, having been built by wealthy estate owners, these cottages tended to be much larger and elaborate than a typical rural workers home. They are generally referred to as Cottage Orne, meaning decorated cottage.
The shaped thatched roofs and rustic style of a cottage orné property
Looking closer to home for inspiration, there also developed a newfound appreciation for old medieval buildings and Abbeys which had previously been left to decay. Architects revived some of the Gothic styles found on these structures including the distinctive pointed arch which can be seen on the above property.
The Napoleonic wars and a threat from France encouraged a subconscious desire to adorn buildings with sham fortifications. Battlements along parapet walls became a common feature of Regency buildings, although I very much doubt that these were ever used as fighting platforms from which to launch arrows.
Regency residential ‘Battlements’
Spa towns such as Leamington and seaside resorts such as Brighton became very popular in the Regency period. This was due mainly to a belief that the sea air and mineral waters provided a cure for ailments such as skin disorders and rheumatism. Improvements in transportation helped fuel mass travel to these locations and this in turn created a need for additional housing.
A lack of local stone to quarry in these areas coupled with the introduction of the 1784 Brick tax, led to the elevations of buildings being rendered with a new patented material know as Stucco. It was often scribed with fine horizontal lines to imitate the joints of expensive Ashlar stonework and is now a very familiar aspect of the street scenes in Leamington and Brighton.
White Stucco – The hallmark of the Regency terrace
After the defeat of Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo in 1815, war with France ended. This led to a sustained economic boom and an increase in construction. Although the general principles of neoclassical architecture still endured, there developed a more laissez faire approach to the previous strict adherence to proportions and symmetry. Increasing wealth following the end of hostilities with France reinvigorated British globalism into Asia. This led to ‘oriental flavourings’ being added to the neoclassical style including Chinese style pagoda roofs, commonly seen above balconies. Prince Regent himself also commissioned the Royal pavilion in Brighton which imitated Indian domes and arches on the exterior but with extravagant Chinese interiors and furniture.
Regency Architecture – Brighton Royal Pavilion
This ‘celebration’ of styles was welcomed by many, but for some it was a diversion away from the reassuring order and symmetry of Georgian architecture and signified a descent into chaos. Moving on into the Victorian era we will find that the increasing plethora of international and historically inspired architecture created a new ‘battle ground of styles’.
6. The Victorian House – circa 1830 – 1900
The surviving housing stock that we see today from the Victorian era will likely be the well-built and spacious homes that were constructed from good quality material by competent builders. It is, however, worth bearing in mind that during this boom in housing construction, the majority of the homes were of extremely poor quality and very unhygienic. Today, the vast majority of this slum accommodation has long since been demolished; however, it is where the term ‘Jerry-built’ comes from. The origin of this well-known phrase has various origins including: the Romany word for excrement ‘Gerry’; the slang word ‘Jerrycummumble’ meaning to shake or tumble about; or as a reference to the cheap, poor-quality clocks that were being imported to Britain by the newly-unified country Germany.
We tend see the reign of Queen Victoria as one of seismic advances, mostly brought about by the Industrial Revolution and Imperial expansion. However, despite the potential design influences on offer from across the empire, Britain looked in the rear-view mirror at its own past to find inspiration for architectural styles. The two main competing styles became that of the ordered Classical architecture which dominated the Georgian and Regency periods, and a revival of Gothic architecture – brought about by yearning to recreate a romantic and idealistic view of the Medieval past.
Classical Victorian Architecture
Classical Victorian homes are distinctive from their earlier Georgian predecessors in that they generally have a stucco render on the external elevations (which was first introduced in the Regency period) as opposed to the brick or stone seen mainly on Georgian properties.
The sash windows seen on Classical Victorian homes also differs to the original 12-pane windows seen on Regency and Georgian homes due advancements in glass manufacture and the availability of larger glazing panes. This meant that sash window could have 4-panes instead of the usual 12. This meant the overall weight of the windows increased and necessitated the use of timber ‘horns’ beneath each glazing pane to provide added stability to the frame work.
Victorian entrance doors also changed from the typical Georgian 6-panel elements to simpler 4-panel unit. Doors also included wider muntins (the central timber bar) so that letterboxes could be fitted. Before the Victorian era, any letters or parcels delivered by the postman had to be paid for by the recipient. The introduction of stamps and the penny post meant that house holders no longer had to be in when the postman arrived.
Improved logistics for construction material from the railways and canal networks meant that natural Welsh slates could be relatively easily distributed throughout the country. Slate as a roof covering is very impermeable and can be split much narrower than stone slates meaning that offer a lighter load to the roof structure. This meant that roof pitches could be shallower and give a wider span without risk of collapse.
Victorian Gothic Architecture
The term ‘Gothic’ was originally coined by advocates of Classical architecture as an insult. It refers to the barbarian Goths and was meant to imply squalor and inferiority. The Gothic style of architecture is based on the pointed arch and tends to be asymmetrical in layout with red brick walls and steep gables.
Supporters of Gothic architecture argued that it provided stability and reassurance in the face of the rapidly changing society and the uncertainty of the Industrial Revolution and mass production. Coming from a golden age of religious adherence, Gothic architecture was viewed as being morally superior to the Classical alternative. One of its proponents was John Ruskin who co-founded the Arts & Crafts movement campaigning against industrialisation and for move towards craftsmanship.
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